Literally, "non-dualism," advaita is the name of the oldest extant school of vedAnta. advaita bases itself upon the upanishads, the brahma-sUtras and the bhagavad-gItA. advaita asserts that the real, essential identity of the jIva, the individual self, is nothing other than brahman Itself. The teaching follows from upanishadic statements (mahAvAkyas) like tat tvam asi and aham brahmAsmi. It is in this cardinal doctrine that advaita differs from all other schools of vedAnta. The main tenets of advaita are detailed in commentaries written by SankarAcArya, the famous philosopher who lived in the 7th - 8th centuries A.D. Read http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp for a website dedicated to advaita vedAnta.

There is no single founder of advaita. Since the philosophy of advaita is rooted in the upanishads, which are part of the eternal vedas, the advaita tradition does not trace itself to a historical personality. However, SankarAcArya is venerated as the most important teacher of advaita vedAnta, as he wrote commentaries to the basic scriptural texts, and placed the living advaita tradition on a firm footing. Before SankarAcArya's time, the tradition was passed down mainly through oral instruction. Even today, the traditional way to learn advaita is to sit at the feet of an accomplished guru. Mere reading of the texts is insufficient. More details about the guru paramparA of advaita are at http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/advaita-parampara.html. There is a description of pre-Sankaran vedAnta at http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/pre-sankara.html.

The essential identity of the Atman and brahman is the most important tenet of advaita. brahman is the substratum on which all phenomena are experienced, and also the antaryAmin, the One Lord who dwells in all beings. The innermost Atman, the real Self, is the same as this antaryAmin, and identical to brahman. Liberation (moksha) consists in realizing this identity, not just as a matter of literal or intellectual understanding, but as something that is to be grasped by the individual in his/her own personal experience. Yogic practices help in the road towards such realization, because they help the seeker in practising control of the senses, and in directing the antahkaraNa (the 'internal organ' - consisting of the mind, intellect, awareness and I-ness) inwards. The practice of ashTAnga-yoga is recommended to seekers by teachers of advaita. The seeker has to be equipped with requisite qualifications - qualities such as patience, forbearance, ability to focus one's concentration in an intense manner, an ability to discriminate between the Real and the non-Real, dispassion, and a desire for liberation. However, it is important to remember that moksha is not a result of mere ritualistic practice. Being identical to brahman, moksha always exists. Ritualistic practices help only to the extent of achieving citta-Suddhi, and in developing the above-mentioned qualities.

advaita is a non-dual teaching. When asked why duality is perceived in this world, advaita has a multi-pronged answer to the question. The world of multiplicity can be explained as due to mAyA, the power of creation wielded by the Creator, who is therefore also called the mAyin. From the point of view of the individual, the perception of duality/multiplicity is attributed to avidyA (ignorance) due to which the unity of brahman is not known, and multiplicity is seen instead. This is akin to the false perception of a snake in a rope. When the rope is known, the snake vanishes. Similarly, on brahman-realization, the world of multiplicity vanishes. This does not mean that the individual's ignorance creates the external world. However, the perception of multiplicity in the world, instead of the One brahman, is due to avidyA, i.e. ignorance. When avidyA is removed, the individual knows his own Self (Atman) to be brahman, so that there is no more world and paradoxically, no more individual. Here, the Self alone IS. Removal of avidyA is synonymous with brahman-realization, i.e. moksha.

Read http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/ad-phil.html for a more detailed description.

No, advaita is not a mere copy of buddhism. For a few centuries now, advaita has been criticized as being "pracanna bauddham" - buddhism in disguise. This criticism stems mainly from some of the vaishNava schools of vedAnta, but it is misplaced. Firstly, there is no one "buddhism" and for the criticism to be valid, it must be specified which school of buddhism is being referred to. SankarAcArya expends a lot of effort criticizing many of the philosophical positions taken by various schools of buddhism in his commentaries. Among modern academic scholars, advaita vedAnta is most often compared with the madhyamaka and yogAcAra schools of buddhism. This has been inspired mainly by the fact that the mANDUkya kArikAs, written by gauDapAda, Sankara's paramaguru, exhibit a great familiarity with this school of buddhism.

However, if it is held that advaita vedAnta is essentially the same as madhyamaka buddhism, it must be pointed out that such a view stems from a misunderstanding of the important tenets of both advaita vedAnta and madhyamaka buddhism. There are many key details in which advaita differs from the madhyamaka school of buddhism. As for yogAcAra, the points of similarity arise from the fact that both advaita vedAnta and yogAcAra buddhism have a place for yogic practice, as do other schools of Indian philosophy. For further details, consult http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/gaudapada.html.

The word mAyAvAda serves many purposes. Since advaita upholds the identity of the individual Atman with brahman, a doubt naturally arises about the origin of the variegated universe. The appearance of difference in the universe is attributed to mAyA. In popular parlance, mAyA means illusion, and a magician or a juggler is called a mAyAvI. Within advaita, mAyA has a technical significance as the creative power (Sakti) of brahman, which also serves to occlude, due to which the universe is perceived to be full of difference, and the unity of brahman is not known. See fuller details in response to Q. 3 above. Some vaishNava schools use the word mAyAvAda in a derogatory sense. However, this criticism interprets mAyA solely as illusion and criticizes advaita for dismissing the world as an illusion that is nothing more than a dream. Such a criticism neglects the philosophical subtlety of the concept of mAyA in advaita.

No. In fact, advaita acknowledges that everyday experience leads one to infer plurality, but it maintains emphatically that the transcendental experience of brahmAnubhava sublates the ordinary everyday experience that is based on perception through one's senses. The tradition holds that it is not correct to make one's conclusions on issues of metaphysics based only on normal everyday experience. All schools of vedAnta rely on scripture, i.e. the Vedas, as a valid source of knowledge. As advaita vedAnta is learnt only from the upanishads, it is not falsified by everyday experience. On the other hand, the knowledge of brahman's identity sublates normal perception. It is also pointed out there would be no need for scripture if one's conclusions were based only on everyday experience. Read more at http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/creation.html. An account of the post-Sankaran development in thinking about the One brahman vis-a-vis the manifold universe can be found at http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/one-many.html.

advaita's concept of scripture is very similar to that of the pUrva mImAm.sA school, but with two important exceptions. Thus,

1. The vedas, arranged into the Rk, yajus, sAma and atharva vedas are valid scripture. The vedas are considered apaurusheya (unauthored), and eternally valid texts. They constitute Sruti, i.e. the "heard" revelation. A number of other texts, admittedly of human authorship, are also given scriptural status, but they are subordinate to the vedas in their authority, and are valid where they do not conflict with vedic precepts. These other texts are called smRti, i.e. remembered tradition.
2. Each veda has a karmakANDa, consisting of mantras and ritual injunctions (vidhis) and a jnAnakANDa, consisting of the upanishads and brAhmaNas.
3. The first exception that advaita takes to pUrva mImAmsA is in the role of the jnAnakANDa. The upanishads are not merely arthavAda, as maintained by the pUrva mImAmsA schools. The upanishads teach the knowledge of brahman, and are not meant to eulogize the fruits of ritual action.
4. A second, more subtle philosophical difference with pUrva mImAm.sA is that advaita vedAnta accepts that brahman is the source of the veda, in the same way as brahman is the source of the entire universe. This acceptance of a "source" of the veda would not be acceptable to the true pUrva mImAm.sakas who follow the thought of kumArila bhaTTa or prabhAkara.

The upanishads, which constitute the jnAnakANDa of the vedas, are therefore called Sruti prasthAna, and form one of the three sources of advaita vedAnta. The most important smRti prasthAna of advaita tradition is the bhagavad-gItA, which is perhaps the best known Indian religious text in modern times. The third text is the collection of brahmasUtras, by the sage bAdarAyaNa. The brahmasUtras establish the logical principles of orthodox vedAntic interpretation of Sruti, and are therefore called the nyAya prasthAna. The truth of advaita vedAnta is therefore said to be established on the tripartite foundation (prasthAna trayI)of revealed scripture (Sruti), remembered tradition (smRti) and logic (nyAya).

Very markedly. The orthoprax advaita tradition is closely allied to the smArta tradition, which follows the system of pancAyatana pUjA, where vishNu, Siva, Sakti, gaNapati and sUrya are worshipped as forms of saguNa brahman. In some sources, the concept of the pancAyatana is replaced by the notion of shaNmata, which adds skanda to the above set of five deities. The worship is done both on a daily basis and on specific festival occasions. Questions of who is superior, vishNu or Siva, which are very popular among many groups of Hindus, are not relished by advaitins. In the words of Sri Chandrasekhara Bharati (1892 - 1954), the accomplished jIvanmukta, "you cannot see the feet of the Lord, why do you waste your time debating about the nature of His face?"

That said, vishNu and Siva, the Great Gods of Hinduism, are both very important within the advaita tradition. The sannyAsIs of the advaita order always sign their correspondence with the words "iti nArAyaNasmaraNam ". In worship, advaitins do not insist on exclusive worship of one devatA alone. As brahman is essentially attribute-less (nirguNa), all attributes (guNas) equally belong to It, within empirical reality. The particular form that the devotee prefers to worship is called the ishTa-devatA. The ishTa-devatAs worshipped by advaitins include vishNu as kRshNa, the jagadguru, and as rAma, Siva as dakshiNAmUrti, the guru who teaches in silence, and as candramaulISvara, and the Mother Goddess as pArvatI, lakshmI and sarasvatI. Especially popular are the representations of vishNu as a sAlagrAma, Siva as a linga, and Sakti as the SrI-yantra. gaNapati is always worshipped at the beginning of any human endeavor, including the pUjA of other Gods. The daily sandhyAvandana ritual is addressed to sUrya. The sannyAsis of the advaita sampradAya recite both the vishNu sahasranAmam and the SatarudrIya portion of the yajurveda as part of their daily worship. In addition, "hybrid" forms of the Deities, such as hari-hara or Sankara-nArAyaNa and ardhanArISvara are also worshipped.

There is another significant distinction between worship in the advaita tradition and other kinds of Hindu worship. advaita insists that the distinction between the worshipper and God, the object of worship, is ultimately transcended, and that the act of worship itself points to this identity. This should not be confused with the doctrine of dualistic Saiva siddhAnta schools, which call for a ritual identification of the worshipper with Siva, for the duration of the worship. The identity of Atman and Brahman is a matter of absolute truth, not just a temporary ritual identification. Most vaishNava schools of vedAnta hold that the distinction between the worshipper and God, the object of worship, is eternally maintained.

In the advaita analysis, human life and behavior is explained on the basis of the theory of karma, which sets the cycle of rebirths into motion. All actions, good or bad, create their own karmic residues called vAsanas , which exhibit their results over a period of time. The karma which has already started taking fruit is called prArabdha karma. This is the karma that is responsible for the current birth. The accumulated karma which is yet to take fruit is called sancita karma. As long as the cycle of rebirths continues, more karma will be done in the future, and this is called Agamin karma. Liberation (moksha) is the way out of this endless cycle.

In advaita, moksha is synonymous with brahman. Sruti says "brahmavit brahmaiva bhavati" - He who knows brahman becomes brahman Itself. In the advaita understanding of this statement, the "becoming" is only metaphorical. It is not as if something that was not brahman suddenly becomes brahman. Rather, "knowing brahman" means a removal of the ignorance about one's own essential nature as brahman. Thus, to "know brahman" is to "be brahman". The one who has realized the identity of his own Atman with the brahman is the jIvanmukta, one who is liberated even while embodied. Such realization should not and cannot just be a literal understanding of upanishadic mahAvAkyas. The jIvanmukta is one who has experienced the truth of the identity himself. Thus, moksha can only indirectly be called a result of ritual action (karma mArga) or of devotional service (bhakti mArga ). These paths lead along the way, and constitute the "how" but not the "why" of liberation. In fact, moksha is not a result of anything, for it always exists. All that is required is the removal of ignorance. For this reason, the way of advaita vedAnta is also called the path of knowledge (jnAna-mArga).

advaita holds that realization of brahman is possible on this earth itself. The highly evolved seeker, who approaches vedAntic study with a pure mind, and a strong tendency of mumukshutva, is fit to really experience brahman. One who has actually realized brahman, is a jIvanmukta - he is liberated while still living. He continues to live in a material body, because of the momentum of the prArabha karma that has already started taking fruit. But he accumulates no further karma, because all Agamin karma and sancita karma are "burnt" in the knowledge of brahmajnAna. The body eventually dies, and the jIvanmukta is said to have attained videhamukti. In accordance with the Sruti, "na sa punarAvartate," he does not enter into the cycle of rebirths any more.

The earliest advaitins whose writings are available today are gauDapAda (6th or 7th cent. CE - mANDUKya kArikas) and SankarAcArya (8th cent. CE - brahmasUtra bhAshyas, bhagavadgItA bhAshya and various upanishad bhAshyas ). Four disciples of SankarAcArya are known in the tradition - sureSvara, padmapAda, toTaka and hastAmalaka. An elder contemporary of SankarAcArya was maNDana miSra, who is traditionally identified with sureSvara.

In the post-Sankaran period, some of the leading authors are vAcaspati miSra (9th cent. CE), sarvajnAtman (9th - 10th cent. CE), prakASAtman (10th cent. CE), SrIharsha (12th cent. CE), citsukha (13th cent. CE), Anandagiri, bhAratI tIrtha, vidyAraNya (13th - 14th cent. CE), madhusUdana sarasvatI, nRsimhASrama, appayya dIkshita (16th cent. CE), sadASiva brahmendra and upanishad brahmendra (17th - 18th cent. CE), are notable figures in the tradition. In the 20th century, candraSekhara bhAratI and saccidAnandendra sarasvatI have written scholarly treatises on advaita vedAnta. Other than these, there have been many other equally illustrious scholars who have not written texts, but who have taught their disciples through oral instruction. These post-Sankaran authors are discussed at http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/advaita.html#philosophers.

All present day advaitins trace their guru-parampara through the four disciples of SrI SankarAcArya. These disciples were the first leaders of the four AmnAya maThas (monasteries) at Puri (Govardhan Math, Puri 752 001, Orissa) Sringeri (Sri Sarada Peetham, Sringeri 577 139, Karnataka), Dvaraka (Dvaraka Peeth, Dvaraka 361 335, Gujarat ) and Badrinath (Sri Sankaracharya Math, Joshimath, Badri 246 443, Uttar Pradesh). All four maThas are functioning today. Other well-known maThas are based in Kaladi, Bangalore, Kudali, Ujjain, Rameswaram, Sivaganga, Kolhapur, Kancipuram (Srimatham Samsthanam No. 1, Salai Street, Kanchipuram 631 502, Tamil Nadu), Varanasi, Bodhgaya and other holy places in India. And there are a number of other institutions in India that are also active in disseminating advaita philosophy and religion, like the various daSanAmI akhADas all over north India, Kankhal Asrama in Hardwar and its branches, the Advaita Asrama in Pune, etc. In addition to these traditional advaita lineages, various other Indian religious traditions, especially those relating to kuNDalinI yoga, siddha yoga, various tAntric lineages and numerous Saiva and SAkta traditions trace some connection to the guru-paramparA of SankarAcArya and his successors. The ramaNASramam (Tiruvannamalai 606 603, Tamil Nadu) is another important center, asscociated with the memory of SrI ramaNa mahaRshi, a celebrated sage of the 20th century.

In recent times, a large number of institutions have been set up all over the world by teachers like Swami Vivekananda, Paramahamsa Yogananda, Swami Sivananda and others. These institutions also draw inspiration from advaita. See http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/ad-today.html, and the answer to question 13 below, for further details.

• Mailing list for advaita vedAnta - There is a mailing list, called ADVAITA-L, for discussing advaita vedAnta. You can subscribe to this list is to go to the list archives page (http://lists.advaita-vedanta.org/archives/advaita-l.html Broken as on May 22, 2003), and to follow the appropriate link. Else, send an email to listserv@lists.advaita-vedanta.org, with a blank subject line and the following message:

  SUBSCRIBE ADVAITA-L Your_full_name

  Example:
  SUBSCRIBE ADVAITA-L Devadatta

  Once you subscribe, you will get a welcome message explaining how to set the other mailing options. If you have any questions about the mailing list, please send an email to listmaster@advaita-vedanta.org, which reaches the list administrators, Sri Ravisankar Mayavaram, Sri Jaldhar Vyas and Sri Vaidya Sundaram. This forum is operated with minimal moderation, in the hope that the members will use self moderation and discuss advaita vedAnta with reverence. Archives of the mailing list are available in web browsable form and can be read from http://lists.advaita-vedanta.org/archives/advaita-l.html.

• Movie on Adi SankarAcArya - A Sanskrit movie on the life of SankarAcArya was made in 1984, by G. V. Iyer. This was the first Sanskrit language movie ever made, and is available from the National Film Development Corporation (NFDC) of India. Details about the movie are available at http://www.nfdcindia.com/mipcom2.html (NFDC website). Information about obtaining a copy of the movie can be found at the NFDC site, at http://www.nfdcindia.com/international.html. Also read a discussion about this movie, at the archives of the advaita mailing list.
• Image of Adi SankarAcArya - A clay image of Adi SankarAcArya can be obtained online from JBL Statues (http://jblstatue.com/pages/sankaracharya.html).
• CD-ROM on Saundaryalahari - The Saundaryalahari is an important hymn attributed to SankarAcArya. A new interactive multimedia CD-ROM is available from Chidagni Creations.
• Websites related to advaita vedAnta and vedAntins -

  The number of online resources relating to contemporary masters from the ancient advaita tradition and the modern neo-vedAnta schools is growing rapidly. Here is a collection of links you might be interested in visiting:

  http://www.erols.com/ramakris/sringeri/sringeri.html - The Sringeri maTha, currently headed by Swami Bharati Tirtha, is the first advaita monastery, established by Adi Sankara. The Sringeri lineage is directly or indirectly the source of most contemporary institutions associated with advaita vedAnta. In addition, there is now an official extension of the Sringeri Peetham in the USA, called the Sringeri Vidya Bharati Foundation (http://www.asanet.com/sringeri). The Peetham's bimonthly magazine, titled Tattvaloka, can also be obtained online in English and Italian versions (http://www.vidya.org/tattvaloka).
  http://www.kamakoti.org - The Kancipuram maTha, under Swami Jayendra Sarasvati.
  http://www.chitrapurmath.org/about.htm - The Chitrapur maTha of one group of sArasvata brAhmaNas, under Swami Sadyojata Sankarasrama. This maTha maintains its centuries old traditional links with the Sringeri maTha.
  http://www.koviloor-madalayam.org - The Koviloor maTha, a dynamic vedAnta maTha of the Nagarattar community, under Srilasri Nachiappa Gnanadesikan. Since its inception, this maTha has maintained traditional links with Sringeri maTha. This maTha is also one of the few institutions that preserve an old tradition of teaching advaita vedAnta through Tamil texts (including original texts and translations from Sanskrit).
  http://www.culturalindia.com/karyalaya.htm - Adhyatma Prakasha Karyalaya, founded by Swami Saccidanandendra Sarasvati.
  http://www.vedanta.org - Vedanta Society of Southern California, in the lineage of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa and Swami Vivekananda. Also see http://www.ramakrishna.org and http://www.vivekananda.org.
  http://www.rsl.ukans.edu/~pkanagar/divineThe Divine Life Society, Rishikesh, established by Swami Sivananda, now headed by Swami Chidananda.
  http://www.sivananda.org - Yoga Vedanta Center, established by Swami Vishnudevananda, a disciple of Swami Sivananda.
  http://www.chinmaya.org - Chinmaya Mission, established by Swami Chinmayananda, a disciple of Swami Sivananda and Tapovan Maharaj.
  http://www.arshavidya.org - Arsha Vidya Gurukulam, established by Swami Dayananda Saraswati. Some very good lectures are available online, at http://www.yogamalika.org/reading-room.htm, maintained by Swami Paramarthananda. Broken as on May 22, 2003
  http://www.yogananda-srf.org - Self Realization Fellowship, established by Swami Paramahamsa Yogananda, maintains traditional links with the Puri and Bodhgaya maThas.
  http://www.ramana-maharshi.org - About Sri Ramana Maharishi.
  http://www.SATRamana.org - Master Nome, at Society for Abidance in Truth, Santa Cruz, California.
  http://www.vidya.org - Vidya Bharata, founded by Raphael, Asram Vidya Order, Italy.
  http://www.geocities.com/omkara - Swami Omkarananda Ashram, Rishikesh, established by Swami Omkarananda.
  http://www.ayurvedahc.com/ashlinge.htm - A Siddha Mahayoga lineage associated with SrI bhAratI kRshNa tIrtha of the Puri maTha.
  http://ddi.digital.net/~egodust - Egodust's Pathways to Metaphysics page.
  http://www.geocities.com/RodeoDrive/1415/veda.html - An introduction to Vedanta, by Giridhar Madras.

• OnlineBookstores/Publishers:

  http://www.tamilcinema.com/samata/page1.html - Samata Books, Madras: A comprehensive collection of SrI SankarAcArya's works may be obtained from here. Alternatively, see http://www.nesmabooksindia.com/samata.htm.
  http://www.mlbd.com - Motilal Banarsidass, a premier Indian publishing house.
  http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~ucgadkw/indnet-publishers.html - A collection of Indological publishers and bookshops, including Indian resources like Chetana (Mumbai), DK Agencies (New Delhi), Vedamsbooks (New Delhi) and The India Club.
  http://www.vedanta.com - Online catalog of the Vedanta Press, Los Angeles.
  http://www.sunypress.edu - The State University of New York Press.
  http://www.bookshop.co.uk - The Internet Bookshop, UK.
  http://www.amazon.com - Amazon Books, largest online booksellers.
  http://www.demon.co.uk/keganpaul - Kegan Paul International, London, UK.
  http://www.leggett.co.uk - Trevor Leggett's books.

• Related sites:

  http://www.philo.demon.co.uk/Darshana.htm - A well designed site on the six darSanas of Indian Philosophy.
  http://vedavid.org/port.html - Collection of Vedic texts, a highly interesting graduate dissertation, presented online.
  ftp://jaguar.cs.utah.edu/private/sanskrit/sanskrit.html - General things of interest for Sanskrit lovers.